Description/Core Constructs/Concept Map
The theoretical constructs below make up the Social Cognitive Theory, and are important to the effectiveness of the model. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time (4).
Theoretical Constructs:
1) Self-efficacy: People will only do what they believe they can do. This is best predictor of the behavior and most important construct (1).
A study designed to determine the extent to which positive outcome expectations and self-efficacy influenced disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners examined these aspects of self-efficacy (5). The study asked an agreement scale for the following statements: I can bring up the topic of my HIV-positive serostatus with any sexual partner, I can disclose my HIV-positive serostatus to all partners before we engage in sex, and I can handle any sexual partner's reaction to my HIV-positive serostatus disclosure (5).
2) Expectations: People behave in certain ways because of the results they expect; can be influenced by our past experiences in similar situations, observing others or hearing about others in similar situations, and by the emotional or physical response that occurs as a result of the behavior. An example is if a man uses a condom because he expects to be protected from STI’s and fatherhood. They can also cause us to avoid a behavior. For example, if people expect to get sick from the flu vaccine, they won’t be vaccinated (1).
3) Self-Regulation: It is a mixture of self-efficacy and expectations, along with goal setting. It occurs when people form beliefs about what they can do, anticipate the likely outcome of their actions, set goals, and plan a course of action that will result in the expected outcome. An example is of people who plan and track their eating and plan different strategies of fruit, vegetable and fiber consumption. Thus, they now have healthier diets due to their new goal setting (1).
4) Observational Learning: Learning by watching others and copying their behavior. We adopt basic life skills through observation (mannerisms, interpersonal communication style, etc.). It can be negative, for example, if a child watches their parent smoke, causing the child to smoke later on in their life. Observational learning is most useful when the model is considered to be a powerful person, well respected, and someone the observer can relate to (1).
5) Expectancies: The values we place on the outcomes of expectations. A behavior is more likely to occur when the expectancy, or value placed on its outcome, maximizes a positive result and minimizes a negative one (1). Expectancies are present outcomes of change that have functional meaning (2). An example would be if a woman worries that the mammogram will show cancer, the outcome (expectation) of the behavior (having a mammogram) is seen as being negative, and will be avoided. The negative expectancy (diagnosis of cancer) explains why she avoids having the mammogram. On the contrary, the expectancy can be positive if she views early diagnosis of breast cancer as something that would increase her chance of cure. Therefore, she would have an annual mammogram (1).
6) Emotional Arousal: In certain situations people become fearful, and when this happens, their behavior becomes defensive in an effort to reduce the fear (3). It may influence health behavior positively, or potentially hinder good health practices (1). An example involving emotional arousal may be the possibility of having unprotected sex with a new partner, which leads to the fear of contracting the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In order to reduce this fear, condoms are used, or abstinence is practiced until HIV testing is done (or possibly both). Emotional arousal leads to a more positive health behavior of HIV risk reduction (1). On the other hand, emotional arousal may hinder good health practices for those who have fear and anxiety of going to the dentist. This fear is reduced by not going to the dentist, therefore compromising their dental health (1).
7) Behavioral Capability: If people are to perform a certain behavior, they must have knowledge of the behavior and the skills to perform it. Promote mastery learning through skills training (2). An example of behavioral capability involves when we look at the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. In order for people to follow the recommendations of the guidelines (low diet in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt and added sugars), they must choose foods that are low in saturated fats. This involves understanding what foods are low in saturated fats, and having the ability to make better choices when eating (1).
8) Reinforcement: A system of rewards (positive reinforcements) and punishments (negative reinforcements) in response to behavior. Behavior either occurs because people want the reward or wish to avoid the punishment (1). An example is one may discontinue medication for Type II diabetes because of dietary changes and exercise; this has allowed them to now have it under control (1).
9) Locus of Control: People have varying degrees of belief in their ability to control what happens to them. This belief has an impact on health decisions, and health behavior. It involves internally controlled people (who believe everything that happens to them is a result of their own decisions and behaviors), and externally controlled people (who believe that forces outside their control, such as fate, God’s will, or important or powerful others, govern all aspects of their lives) (1).
Sources:
1) Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to health behavior theory (2nd ed., pp. 173-199). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.
2) Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. & Lewis, F.M. (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research and Practice. San Fransisco: Wiley & Sons.
3) Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4) Boston University School of Public Health (2013, January 22). The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/SB721-Models/SB721-Models5.html
5) Glanz, Rimer, Viswanath (n.d.). Health Behavior and Health Education | Part Three, Chapter Eight: Key Constructs. Retrieved from http://www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part3-ch8-key-constructs.shtml
Theoretical Constructs:
1) Self-efficacy: People will only do what they believe they can do. This is best predictor of the behavior and most important construct (1).
A study designed to determine the extent to which positive outcome expectations and self-efficacy influenced disclosure of HIV seropositivity to sexual partners examined these aspects of self-efficacy (5). The study asked an agreement scale for the following statements: I can bring up the topic of my HIV-positive serostatus with any sexual partner, I can disclose my HIV-positive serostatus to all partners before we engage in sex, and I can handle any sexual partner's reaction to my HIV-positive serostatus disclosure (5).
2) Expectations: People behave in certain ways because of the results they expect; can be influenced by our past experiences in similar situations, observing others or hearing about others in similar situations, and by the emotional or physical response that occurs as a result of the behavior. An example is if a man uses a condom because he expects to be protected from STI’s and fatherhood. They can also cause us to avoid a behavior. For example, if people expect to get sick from the flu vaccine, they won’t be vaccinated (1).
3) Self-Regulation: It is a mixture of self-efficacy and expectations, along with goal setting. It occurs when people form beliefs about what they can do, anticipate the likely outcome of their actions, set goals, and plan a course of action that will result in the expected outcome. An example is of people who plan and track their eating and plan different strategies of fruit, vegetable and fiber consumption. Thus, they now have healthier diets due to their new goal setting (1).
4) Observational Learning: Learning by watching others and copying their behavior. We adopt basic life skills through observation (mannerisms, interpersonal communication style, etc.). It can be negative, for example, if a child watches their parent smoke, causing the child to smoke later on in their life. Observational learning is most useful when the model is considered to be a powerful person, well respected, and someone the observer can relate to (1).
5) Expectancies: The values we place on the outcomes of expectations. A behavior is more likely to occur when the expectancy, or value placed on its outcome, maximizes a positive result and minimizes a negative one (1). Expectancies are present outcomes of change that have functional meaning (2). An example would be if a woman worries that the mammogram will show cancer, the outcome (expectation) of the behavior (having a mammogram) is seen as being negative, and will be avoided. The negative expectancy (diagnosis of cancer) explains why she avoids having the mammogram. On the contrary, the expectancy can be positive if she views early diagnosis of breast cancer as something that would increase her chance of cure. Therefore, she would have an annual mammogram (1).
6) Emotional Arousal: In certain situations people become fearful, and when this happens, their behavior becomes defensive in an effort to reduce the fear (3). It may influence health behavior positively, or potentially hinder good health practices (1). An example involving emotional arousal may be the possibility of having unprotected sex with a new partner, which leads to the fear of contracting the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In order to reduce this fear, condoms are used, or abstinence is practiced until HIV testing is done (or possibly both). Emotional arousal leads to a more positive health behavior of HIV risk reduction (1). On the other hand, emotional arousal may hinder good health practices for those who have fear and anxiety of going to the dentist. This fear is reduced by not going to the dentist, therefore compromising their dental health (1).
7) Behavioral Capability: If people are to perform a certain behavior, they must have knowledge of the behavior and the skills to perform it. Promote mastery learning through skills training (2). An example of behavioral capability involves when we look at the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. In order for people to follow the recommendations of the guidelines (low diet in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt and added sugars), they must choose foods that are low in saturated fats. This involves understanding what foods are low in saturated fats, and having the ability to make better choices when eating (1).
8) Reinforcement: A system of rewards (positive reinforcements) and punishments (negative reinforcements) in response to behavior. Behavior either occurs because people want the reward or wish to avoid the punishment (1). An example is one may discontinue medication for Type II diabetes because of dietary changes and exercise; this has allowed them to now have it under control (1).
9) Locus of Control: People have varying degrees of belief in their ability to control what happens to them. This belief has an impact on health decisions, and health behavior. It involves internally controlled people (who believe everything that happens to them is a result of their own decisions and behaviors), and externally controlled people (who believe that forces outside their control, such as fate, God’s will, or important or powerful others, govern all aspects of their lives) (1).
Sources:
1) Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to health behavior theory (2nd ed., pp. 173-199). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.
2) Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. & Lewis, F.M. (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research and Practice. San Fransisco: Wiley & Sons.
3) Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4) Boston University School of Public Health (2013, January 22). The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/SB721-Models/SB721-Models5.html
5) Glanz, Rimer, Viswanath (n.d.). Health Behavior and Health Education | Part Three, Chapter Eight: Key Constructs. Retrieved from http://www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part3-ch8-key-constructs.shtml