Key Terms
-Self-efficacy: One’s own estimation of one’s personal
ability to do something (1)
-Self-efficacy is extremely important for self-regulated learning because it affects the extent to which learners engage and persist at challenging tasks. Students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in a difficult task and more likely to persist at a task even in the face of initial failures compared to low-efficacy students (Pajares, 1996). Considering that students generally lose confidence and interest in science with age, improving self-efficacy is an important goal (Pell & Jarvis, 2001). (2)
-Observational learning (modeling): Learning by watching others (1)
-Hungry Rats observed a conspecific demonstrator pushing a single manipulandum, a joystick, to the right or to the left for food reward and were then allowed access to the joystick from a different orientation. The effects of right-pushing vs left-pushing observation experience on (1) response acquisition, (2) reversal of a left-right discrimination, and (3) responding in extinction, were examined. Rats that had observed left-pushing made more left responses during acquisition that rats that had observed right-pushing, and rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the direction that had previously been reinforced took longer to reach criterion reversal and made more responses in extinction that rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the opposite direction to that previously reinforced. These results provide evidence that rats are capable of leaning a response, or a response-reinforcer contingency, through conspecific observation. (3)
-Expectations: The likely outcome of a particular behavior (1)
- Because quitting smoking increases appetite, one would expect that when they quit smoking that they will gain weight (1).
-Expectancies: The value place on the outcome of the behavior (1)
-You may have a strong expectancy that if you put forth the effort, you can produce ten units an hour, but that you only have a fifty-fifty chance of producing fifteen units an hour if you try…In general, the motivation to attempt the behavior is in a certain way is greatest when:
a. The individual believes that the behavior will lead to outcomes.
b. The individual believes that these outcomes have positive value for him or her
c. The individual believes that he or she is able to perform the desired leve.
Given a number of alternative levels of behavior (ten, fifteen, and twenty units of production per hour, for example) the individual will choose that level of performance which has the greatest motivational force associated with it. (4)
-Emotional arousal: The emotional reaction to a situation and its resulting behavior (1)
-Zillmann (1991) advanced the notion that the arousal-inducing properties of media violence were very important for understanding the intensity of emotional reactions that occur immediately after viewing. For example, when viewer become angry after exposer to a highly arousing violent depiction, this arousal could subsequently transfer to the anger and intensify it – making aggressive behavior more likely. Similarly, the arousal could also intensify a positive emotion that might occur subsequent to viewing. (5)
-Behavioral capability: The knowledge and skills needed to engage in a particular behavior (1)
-Although models mathematically estimate the decline of behavioral capability as a function of time awake (or at work), and the recovery of behavioral capability following sleep (or time off for sleep), they do not all treat circadian phase with equivalent importance either as a required input and/or a necessary output (46). The failure to do so is contrary to extensive scientific evidence that circadian phase contributes substantially to the variance in waking performance (16,64) (6)
-Reinforcement: The rewards or punishments for doing something (1)
-A positive reinforcement could be new clothes in a smaller size because of weight loss (1).
-Locus of control: One’s belief regarding one’s personal power over life events (1)
-Women who are more externally controlled are not likely to have mammograms unless their physicians tell them to have one. However, those who are internally controlled will have mammograms regardless of whether their physicians recommend them or not (Borrayo & Guarnaccia, 2002) (1).
Sources:
1) Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to health behavior theory (2nd ed., pp. 173-199). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.
2) Crippen, K. J., & Earl, B. I. (2007). The impact of web-based worked examples and self-explanation on performance, problem solving, and self-efficacy. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036013150500179X
3) Heyes, C. M., & Dawson, G. R. (2007, May 29). An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640749008401871#.U0VgD1dgKeg
4) Leavitt, H. J., Pondy, L. R., & Boje, D. M. (n.d.). Readings in Managerial Psychology - Google Books. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dwTvE44DOgQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Readings+in+Managerial+Psychology.%22&ots=sQwOi_0Kzk&sig=WKtHqwpSj8vvRUHAxggYiN9dKXU#v=onepage&q=Readings%20in%20Managerial%20Psychology.%22&f=false
5) Bryant, J., & Zillman, D. (n.d.). Readings in Managerial Psychology - Google Books. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dwTvE44DOgQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Readings+in+Managerial+Psychology.%22&ots=sQwOi_0Kzk&sig=WKtHqwpSj8vvRUHAxggYiN9dKXU#v=onepage&q=Readings%20in%20Managerial%20Psychology.%22&f=false
6) Dingers, D. (2006, February 21). ingentaconnect Critical Research Issues in Development of Biomathematical Models... Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/asma/asem/2004/00000075/a00103s1/art00031
-Self-efficacy is extremely important for self-regulated learning because it affects the extent to which learners engage and persist at challenging tasks. Students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in a difficult task and more likely to persist at a task even in the face of initial failures compared to low-efficacy students (Pajares, 1996). Considering that students generally lose confidence and interest in science with age, improving self-efficacy is an important goal (Pell & Jarvis, 2001). (2)
-Observational learning (modeling): Learning by watching others (1)
-Hungry Rats observed a conspecific demonstrator pushing a single manipulandum, a joystick, to the right or to the left for food reward and were then allowed access to the joystick from a different orientation. The effects of right-pushing vs left-pushing observation experience on (1) response acquisition, (2) reversal of a left-right discrimination, and (3) responding in extinction, were examined. Rats that had observed left-pushing made more left responses during acquisition that rats that had observed right-pushing, and rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the direction that had previously been reinforced took longer to reach criterion reversal and made more responses in extinction that rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the opposite direction to that previously reinforced. These results provide evidence that rats are capable of leaning a response, or a response-reinforcer contingency, through conspecific observation. (3)
-Expectations: The likely outcome of a particular behavior (1)
- Because quitting smoking increases appetite, one would expect that when they quit smoking that they will gain weight (1).
-Expectancies: The value place on the outcome of the behavior (1)
-You may have a strong expectancy that if you put forth the effort, you can produce ten units an hour, but that you only have a fifty-fifty chance of producing fifteen units an hour if you try…In general, the motivation to attempt the behavior is in a certain way is greatest when:
a. The individual believes that the behavior will lead to outcomes.
b. The individual believes that these outcomes have positive value for him or her
c. The individual believes that he or she is able to perform the desired leve.
Given a number of alternative levels of behavior (ten, fifteen, and twenty units of production per hour, for example) the individual will choose that level of performance which has the greatest motivational force associated with it. (4)
-Emotional arousal: The emotional reaction to a situation and its resulting behavior (1)
-Zillmann (1991) advanced the notion that the arousal-inducing properties of media violence were very important for understanding the intensity of emotional reactions that occur immediately after viewing. For example, when viewer become angry after exposer to a highly arousing violent depiction, this arousal could subsequently transfer to the anger and intensify it – making aggressive behavior more likely. Similarly, the arousal could also intensify a positive emotion that might occur subsequent to viewing. (5)
-Behavioral capability: The knowledge and skills needed to engage in a particular behavior (1)
-Although models mathematically estimate the decline of behavioral capability as a function of time awake (or at work), and the recovery of behavioral capability following sleep (or time off for sleep), they do not all treat circadian phase with equivalent importance either as a required input and/or a necessary output (46). The failure to do so is contrary to extensive scientific evidence that circadian phase contributes substantially to the variance in waking performance (16,64) (6)
-Reinforcement: The rewards or punishments for doing something (1)
-A positive reinforcement could be new clothes in a smaller size because of weight loss (1).
-Locus of control: One’s belief regarding one’s personal power over life events (1)
-Women who are more externally controlled are not likely to have mammograms unless their physicians tell them to have one. However, those who are internally controlled will have mammograms regardless of whether their physicians recommend them or not (Borrayo & Guarnaccia, 2002) (1).
Sources:
1) Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to health behavior theory (2nd ed., pp. 173-199). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.
2) Crippen, K. J., & Earl, B. I. (2007). The impact of web-based worked examples and self-explanation on performance, problem solving, and self-efficacy. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036013150500179X
3) Heyes, C. M., & Dawson, G. R. (2007, May 29). An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640749008401871#.U0VgD1dgKeg
4) Leavitt, H. J., Pondy, L. R., & Boje, D. M. (n.d.). Readings in Managerial Psychology - Google Books. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dwTvE44DOgQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Readings+in+Managerial+Psychology.%22&ots=sQwOi_0Kzk&sig=WKtHqwpSj8vvRUHAxggYiN9dKXU#v=onepage&q=Readings%20in%20Managerial%20Psychology.%22&f=false
5) Bryant, J., & Zillman, D. (n.d.). Readings in Managerial Psychology - Google Books. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dwTvE44DOgQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Readings+in+Managerial+Psychology.%22&ots=sQwOi_0Kzk&sig=WKtHqwpSj8vvRUHAxggYiN9dKXU#v=onepage&q=Readings%20in%20Managerial%20Psychology.%22&f=false
6) Dingers, D. (2006, February 21). ingentaconnect Critical Research Issues in Development of Biomathematical Models... Retrieved April 2, 2014, from http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/asma/asem/2004/00000075/a00103s1/art00031